Ethical And Legal Analysis Of Mckinnon Case

Ethical And Legal Analysis Of Mckinnon Case This assignment I based upon an article published online on the 15th of May 2009 by popular computing Magazine PC Pro (see appendix A). The article discussed Gary McKinnon who has been accused of hacking a number of United States (US) NASA, Army, Navy, Department of Defence, and Air Force systems. His US prosecutors insist he was acting with malicious intent and that he caused damage worth over $700,000. McKinnon denies acting with malicious intent or that he caused that much damage, citing that his motivation was to search for evidence of secret free fuel, anti-gravity and UFO technologies. McKinnon has stated that the network security was weak and he was able to gain access due to network administrators failing to use secure passwords on high level administrative accounts. Once inside, McKinnon used readily available software called RemotelyAnywhere to take control of machines. The case study identifies that his search became an addiction which took over his life. Rationale The Gary McKinnon case sprung to the headlines in 2001, the media frenzy surrounding the case would support the tagline of the biggest military hack of all time. The case has been open for over nine years now and the end is not yet in sight; indicating that the legal issues within the case are both complex and in no way, easy to dissever. The extensive and drawn-out media coverage adds to the complexity of the issues surrounding the case. This case study has been chosen firstly as it covers a very current issue in hacking. It would seem that hacking cases would only increase in the future as more nations cross the digital divide. Electronic crime is difficult to police and further difficulties arise out of international crimes. The nature of electronic communication and the removal of physical boundaries provide complexities in electronic crime and the control of borderless technologies. This case study has been chosen as it is particularly exposed to ethical questioning as law does not adequately resolve this case. This case study has been chosen for ethical and legal analysis not just for its high profile. Numerous actors can be identified in this case to provide a solid base to apply a pragmatic analysis of ethical issues though the direction of ethical frameworks. Primary actors in this case are identified as the Gary McKinnon and the network administrators responsible for security. Secondary actors have been identified as the makers of RemotelyAnywhere, the software which allowed McKinnon to control machines so easily and the US military who were the owners of the networks and data stored there. Similarly, these actors provide a basis to identify legal issues inherent within the case study. There are sufficient suggestions to argue that laws have been broken by both primary actors in this case. Technology strides on through the digital age where the other side of the world is accessible at our fingertips and a mere four billion IP addresses are not fulfilling needs. For this reason, it cannot be helped but to feel that hacking cases will only increase in scale and/or frequency and perhaps the Gary McKinnon case will be surpassed in the future. At first glance this case appears to be a typical hacking case, where the person committing the offence is acting for purely personal reasons to commit fraud or otherwise take something which isnt theirs to take. However this case differs in that there is no reason to believe that McKinnon was acting with the intent to take anything which was not his or to gain any personal advantage from his actions. Actors objecting to McKinnons actions are those who were responsible for the security of the network and those who owned the network. Ethical Frameworks Modern day normative ethical frameworks are broadly divided into two. Deontology, based on moral intention and input, and conversely Teleology which is centred around the output and end result. Teleological Teleology is the philosophical stance that an action may be critiqued based upon its consequences. It is commonly thought of with the view that the end may justify the means (Edgar, 2002; Bynum and Rogerson, 2006; Weckert, 2007), therefore teleological frameworks are concerned with the end result of an action. Utilitarianism is a type of teleological theory, which emphasises that the end result is important rather than the intentions of an individual. Its main principle is specifically to seek to maximise happiness through consequences (Spinello, 1995). It therefore claims that an action may be judged based wholly upon its usefulness in bringing about happiness. Speaking on utilitarianism it was observed by Velasquez (1992) that the principle assumes all benefits and costs of an action can be measured on a common numerical scale of moral calculus (p.61). To what constitutes happiness and its worth would largely depend upon the individual critiquing the action. For example McKinnon may argue that his happiness in doing this for so long was far greater than the unhappiness caused for the US Government who has lots of money and resources, yet the utilitarian frame work aims to maximise the greatest happiness of all those whose interest is in question. (Lyons, 2003 p.27). So everyone affected must come into consideration, this includes: the network administrators, the US government, McKinnon and the makers of RemotelyAnywhere. It can be argued that McKinnon was attempting to maximise happiness by uncovering secret technologies. However a utilitarian framework is only concerned with the happiness actually brought about as a result from an action (Spinello, 1995) rather than intent. Whilst McKinnon is the primary actor and the main benefiter, in the article he is quoted as saying I think I wanted to be caught, because it was ruining me (Turton, 2009). This indicates that McKinnons happiness was short lived and as a result produced unhappiness from him quitting his job and splitting up with his girlfriend. The makers of the software RemotelyAnywhere subsequently had much publicity, however this is predominantly negative publicity as their software was used to commit crime. A small benefit may be that those wishing to commit crime, would buy their software more, even if this is not its intended purpose. A large amount of unhappiness would come from the owners of the network, the US government. The break-in has caused a large amount of embarrassment for the government, intensified by the claims that the security was weak. Even if the allegations that McKinnon deliberately caused damage are untrue, the cost of finding, tracking and fixing the break-in may be more co stly than the actual offense (Baase, 2003). This could be gauged both in terms of money and time. Utilitarian ethics assumed happiness can be somehow calculated. An action can be deemed correct if the total good minus the total bad is greater than that of an alternative (Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006). It is emphasised that the happiness is calculated based upon everyone who would be affected by the action. This is opposite to egoism, which is only concerned with the happiness of the individual undertaking the action (Johnson, 2001; Spinello, 1995). Based upon egoism, McKinnons actions are justified as he was acting purely for his own enjoyment with disregard for anyone else. However as he was caught, the sentence he will most likely receive may outweigh his current happiness. In weighing up the good verses the bad consequences of an action, the distinction must be made between act utilitarians and rule utilitarians. Baase (2003) gives the explanation that rule utilitarianism, applies the utility principle not to individual actions but to general ethical rules. (p.406). In evaluating this case study, it would be difficult to agree that computer hacking is always okay, as this is an invasion of privacy therefore creates much unhappiness. However an argument for applying this as a general rule may be given, as hacking large, private and ungoverned organisations such as the army navy or NASA would ultimately lead to them being more truthful and open about matters. Being honest and encouraging others to be truthful is something that a rule utilitarian would certainly agree with. This argument is of course independent of the allegations that McKinnon caused damage in his apparent search for secrets. The long term effects, in rule utillitarians perspective, coul d be that hacking prestigious governmental networks may cause panic amongst other network administrators or individuals which wish to have their data kept secure. It could likely lead those responsible in this case to lose their jobs. Knowing that data is not private and may be scrutinised can lead to individuals acting differently than they would otherwise; perhaps to the extent that inhibits them from doing their job as well as they otherwise would (Johnson, 2001). Allowing hacking to be justified in all cases may even lead to questioning if electronic data can be kept securely at all! Alternatively, had McKinnon uncovered evidence of UFO technology, the happiness generated would perhaps be greater than unhappiness, and may then be justifiable. Rule utilitarianism fails to foresee the inherent difficulties in predicting the consequences of every act of computer hacking, therefore it is difficult to apply from a practical point of view. Although it may be idealist to conclude that this is would only be suitable for a hindsight evaluation, a rule utilitarian would insist all other cases come into consideration. This is unrealistic and inherently flawed. Act utilitarianism is only concerned with the current action under scrutiny. In applying this to the current case study it was believed by McKinnon that the resulting happiness would far outweigh that of unhappiness. However Johnson (2001) highlights that in making decisions on current actions, the norm or general rules may only be à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦abandoned in situations where it is clear more happiness will result from breaking them. (p.40). McKinnon acknowledges in the case that he gained little in evidence of UFO activity. It is presented that his motivation was to prove the US was withholding information on technologies including anti-gravity propulsion and free energy (Turton, 2009). However, McKinnon alluded to his friends that he had found little or no evidence. Bynum and Rogerson (2006) agree that in a utilitarian framework The risk and probabilities count alsoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (p.72). As McKinnon says that there was little previous evidence of UFO technology then surely accordi ng to a rule utilitarian he should not have ignored the general rule as it was not clear that his actions would result in greater general happiness, consequently it did not. It is identified in the case that McKinnon was only able to access the network due to the action of network administrators in leaving accounts without passwords. The actions of the network administrators would seem unethical under a utilitarian framework when considering the alterative of setting a strong password, which would have had a more desirable effect. Whilst it was not known in this case study if setting passwords would have denied McKinnon unauthorised access, the risk of not setting passwords, as identified by Bynum and Rogerson (2006), would have been extremely high, and the probability that someone would eventually exploit this also high. Whilst it is likely that this error was made due to carelessness rather than a conscious decision, the assumption is made that this was an action that could have been avoided. However this negligence does not automatically justify unauthorised access, under the utilitarian framework the total happiness must be weighed against unhappines s. The happiness generated by this negligent behaviour would primarily be for network administrators who would have been able to log on to machines without having to type passwords. Happiness would have been given to potential hackers too who were more easily able to access the network. Even though allowing hackers in may not have been intended, a utilitarian framework is purely concerned with consequences (Baase, 2003; Bynum and Rogerson, 2006; Spafford, 2006; Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006). As all affected individuals are judged equal (Bynum and Rogerson, 2006) the happiness of terrorists or other hackers must count as a positive consequence: Regardless of a persons station in life, each person is counts the same when the benefits and harms are added up (Bynum and Rogerson, p.71). Alternatively the US government may argue that the unhappiness was far greater from McKinnons actions due to the number of people that would have been affected by shutting down a network of computers. To take this stance the long term view must be disregard, that McKinnons action highlighted a serious security flaw that could have been exploited by a far more astute hacker. To delve even deeper into the realm of possibilities, by McKinnon hacking and getting caught on this occasion, he could have removed any chance of someone being able to hack US government computers ever again, perhaps at a time when hacking US computers would allow millions of lives to be saved. A common criticism of the utilitarian framework is the assumption that huge unhappiness could be justified upon one person for the sake of ten others. This argument could be countered by forcing the acknowledgement of long term consequences as well as the short term consequences (Johnson, 2001). For example, the case study (appendix A) must try and foresee the long term effects of the action. The majority of these long term effects are known as the act was committed back in 2001. Nether the less the unknown unknowns severely limit the reasoning behind making a decision on utilitarian principles. Even if it is believed all the alternatives, consequences and all individuals which will be affected by the consequences have been identified, how can these be verified? A posteriori knowledge may be useful in identifying these, that is, a decision that has been arrived at after the event or perhaps by applying what has happened before. A large issue arising from utilitarianism is that withou t the benefit of hindsight, it is difficult to apply practical reasoning to identify the outcome of an action. Deontological Deontology was first coined by C. D. Broad when he used it in a term to contrast that of Teleological theories based on outcome. However, a deontological approach could be best personified by the earlier work of Immanuel Kant (1785) in saying The moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect expected from it (p.13). Deontologists argue the morality of an argument is based entirely on intentions of ones actions. Immanuel Kant is often presented as the prime example of a deontologist (Baase, 2003). Kantian ethics argues that it is not the consequence that makes an action right or wrong; it is the intentions of the individual carrying out the action. Kant (1785) argues that It is not necessary that whilst I live I live happily; but it is necessary that so long as I live I should live honourably. (p.13). This statement suggests that upon making an honourable decision, this will be the correct thing to do and therefore Kant must assume that this will likely have good consequences. Deciding upon what is honourable and therefore what would be the right thing to do, is largely dictated by law. However other influences may come from upbringing, social characteristics or religious beliefs; for example, McKinnon may have been influenced by his own background in belief of UFOs. It would appear that McKinnons belief in UFOs influenced his actions. McKinnon hacked military machines in an effort to discover secret UFO technology, which would appear to be in conflict with a deontological framework as he is using the action as a mere means to an end. However, as Johnson (2001) points out, a deontological framework dictates that a decision is not used as just a means to an end; it may be justified if that end is moral. In applying this to the current case study we can define that the end result was to discover hidden UFO technologies; McKinnons means of doing this was through hacking. Even though McKinnon states he did not intend to cause harm, but merely look. This perhaps is justifiable if the end result was intended to give the world knowledge of these technologies. The stumbling block in this case is that McKinnon did not have authorisation to do this. Alternatively if the US Government had agreed that McKinnon may hack their computer system on the condition of not causing any damage and just to look, this would have been entir ely ethical on accordance to a deontological framework. It is difficulty to define McKinnons intent as he did not appear to find such evidence and secondly because he was caught. Kants specific class of deontology states I should never act except in such a way that I can also will that my maxim should become universal law (p.14). This again is similar to that of a rule utilitarian, in that if an action cannot be justified on every occasion, if is unethical. In leaving admin accounts without passwords, the professionalism of network administrators may certainly be placed into question, yet it is difficult to identify a motive behind doing so. The key issue driving deontological ethics is the notion of motives. There does not appear to be a motive being this action just negligence. Johnson describes negligence as a failure to do something that a reasonable and prudent person would have done (Johnson, 2001 p.184). Johnsons definition quite adequately describes the system administrators who may have been responsible for leaving high level administrative accounts without adequate security. Therefore under a deontological framework, the actions of the network administrators was unethical. Apposition to Kantian ethics is largely twofold. Firstly, that Kants philosophy is grounded on a universal duty or maxim that can be accepted across the board, which begs the question of what should be adhered to if an action divides two moral maxims. In hacking military machines, McKinnon can only be acting upon his personal duty to find out the truth about UFO existence, but in doing so, ignored the duty to respect others personal property. This highlights the second major issue with Kants philosophy, which is, which maxim should take priority. The ethical principles outlined by Kant rely upon the basis of moral absolutism. This is contrasted by the views of W.D Ross. Ross defined seven initial or prima facie duties: Duty of beneficence: A duty to help other people (increase pleasure, improve character) Duty of non-maleficence: A duty to avoid harming other people. Duty of justice: A duty to ensure people get what they deserve. Duty of self-improvement: A duty to improve ourselves. Duty of reparation: A duty to recompense someone if you have acted wrongly towards them. Duty of gratitude: A duty to benefit people who have benefited us. Duty of promise-keeping: A duty to act according to explicit and implicit promises, including the implicit promise to tell the truth. (Johnson, 2001) Ross defines these as common duties (but in no way absolute) to be upheld regardless of the situation. For example the duty of promise-keeping may be ignored for the duty of beneficence. In light of Rosss variation of deontological ethics, McKinnons hacking of military machines may only be justified under the reason that he was acting upon his personal duty to find out the truth about UFO existence (the duty of beneficence). But in doing so, ignoring the duty to respect others personal property (the duty of non-maleficence). The predominant issue with applying a deontological framework is identifying the intent of an action, this is also somewhat marred by the fact that McKinnon has not yet been charged. McKinnons truthfulness may be contested because he is bias; he would likely say anything to get out of facing a possible extradition and prison sentence. There are suggestions brought forward from his prosecutors that insist McKinnon caused $700,000 worth of damage. The consequences of his action are disregarded under this framework (Kant, 1785), yet this may suggest that his intentions were not simply to find UFO technology. McKinnons actions would not be justifiable if his intentions were to cause damage. If it can be assumed that McKinnons actions were only to search for evidence then a deontological frame would dictate this is ethically justifiable. However, if Kants view is taken into consideration then is cannot be judged that hacking to search for secret technologies is universally justified. Virtue ethics Virtue ethics dates back to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle believed in excellence in human character though upholding virtues (Tavani, 2007; Bynum and Rogerson, 2006). Virtues promote positive character although the list may be very long, such virtues include: responsibility, reliability, self-discipline, modesty, courage and integrity (Bynum and Rogerson, 2006; Johnson, 2001). Whereas utilitarian and deontological frameworks are centred on rules to apply, virtue ethics is about building moral character. In this case study McKinnon displays dishonesty by hacking the network without permission. As virtue ethics ignores the special roles of consequences, duties and social contracts (Tavani, 2007 p.65) therefore McKinnon and the US government must be seen as equals. This exposes McKinnon for acting without due consideration of his actions, and perhaps even foolhardiness to continue breaking in without authorization. Perhaps McKinnon could be seen as courageous for hacking such a powerful establishment, yet acknowledging the roles of the two actors (ibid) removes any hierarchy between the two. The case study beings to light accusations that McKinnon left threatening messages on desktops such as: I am SOLO. I will continue to disrupt at the highest levels. Threatening behaviour is not considered virtuous in Aristolean ideas. Presumably when McKinnon downloaded RemotelyAnywhere, there would have been an end user licence that he would have to agree to before he could use the software. This agreement dictates that the software be used for its intended purpose. McKinnon has showed dishonesty by disobeying this and using the software for hacking. Respect and quality is a key thought in virtue ethics (Bynum and Rogerson, 2006). The network administrators in this case study would not have acted responsibly or with integrity as it is alleged that they failed to take basic measures to ensure the network stayed secure. The US military who owns the network and data held on it, although not directly responsible, would not display reliability as they have been hacked at a time when they should have been on high alert. Rights-based Johnson (2001) described that in a rights-based framework the categorical imperative requires that each person be treated as an end in himself or herselfà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ (p.47). This statement exemplifies the common parallels between deontological and rights-based ethics. Rights are heavily intertwined with law. For example the Data Protection Act gives individuals the right to know what information is being kept on them. Yet regardless of law, some philosophers argued that all humans possess some natural inherent rights. These rights can be seen as universal or human rights such as the right to life; Spinello (1995) gives the example of how these rights are universal in saying everyone equally shares the right to free speech regardless of nationality or status in society (p.31). Natural or universal rights are derived from the nature of humanity (Baase, 2003). Under rights-based ethics, legal rights come second to natural rights. The values of rights based ethics are similar to the principle for nonmaleficence. Baase (2003) states that, under rights based ethics an act is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦likely to be ethical if they involve voluntary interactions and freely made exchanges, where parties are not coerced or deceived. (p.407). In the case study there is evidence which suggests that the exchange of data was not done voluntarily. Therefore the action of McKinnon cannot be justified on that principle. Natural or human rights are seen as inherent and must be respected; this implies that an individual has the right not to be interfered with (Johnson, 2001). Therefore the right to privacy is not diminished by the poor security displayed within the case study. Although the network administrators did not set passwords, this does not automatically negate the right not to be interfered with. Similarly if someone forgets to lock their car this does not give someone else the right to take the car. Lax security would not matter if the right to privacy was upheld. The distinction between positive and negative rights must be given in applying a rights-based ethical framework to this case study. A negative right will free an actor from outside intervention, whereas a positive right would give the actor whatever is needed to fulfil an interest (Spinello, 1995). Negative rights are much more common than positive rights as it is difficult to draw the line as to where a positive right is limited. Johnson (2001) highlighted that whereas duty-based ethics is largely seen a deontological framework, it may be derived from a utilitarian principles on occasion. From a utilitarian perspective, in search of the greatest happiness, Mill argued that intellectual happiness was greater than sensual (Spinello, 1995). On the basis of this, it can be argued that McKinnon may have been over exerting his right to further educate himself, but intellectual happiness is greater in Mills brand of teleology, so his actions would be justified. Rights-based ethics derived from intent would argue that McKinnon has gone against the legal right prohibiting him from unauthorised access to the network and that he has also gone against the moral right to respect others privacy. From a rights-based ethical framework, moral rights take prescience over other duties or action people might have (Baase, 2003) therefore McKinnons actiosn cannot be justified. Legal Issues In applying ethical frameworks to any case study, personal morals are heavily intertwined. Law often overrides these morals. For example, ownership of what someone creates may be negated to that of the company which that person works for if that is in their terms of employment. Alternatively something which is viewed as ethically acceptable may also be against the law. At the very least, law influences moral judgement. There is much dispute over which country McKinnon should be tried. In analysing legal issues inherent within the case study it is firstly assumed that only UK laws apply to this case. It is apparent within the case study that Gary McKinnon did not have authorization to access the US networks. Immediately this is in violation of the Computer Misuse Act 1990, which states that an offence is committed if: (a) he causes a computer to perform any function with intent to secure access to any program or data held in any computer [or to enable any such access to be secured] ; (b) the access he intends to secure [or to enable to be secured,] is unauthorised; and (c) he knows at the time when he causes the computer to perform the function that that is the case. (Computer Misuse Act 1990, 1990) Clearly McKinnon was in breach of the Computer Misuse Act 1990. The case study acknowledges that McKinnon does not have authorisation and that he intended to access data regarding the existence of UFO technology. The maximum sentence for unauthorised access without intent to commit further offences is 5 years in prison. A more serious offence is committed when unauthorised access is gained à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ with intent to impair, or with recklessness as to impairing, operation of computer, etc (Computer Misuse Act 1990, 1990) this holds a maximum imprisonment of 10 years. It is unknown and very difficult to determine what the intention of Gary McKinnon was; to date there is no evidence to suggest he intended to commit further crimes with the data he accessed. But claimed from his United States prosecutors indicate that he did intent to cause damage as he left a message on machines stating: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦I am SOLO. I will continue to disrupt at the highest levels. (Turton, 2009). There are additional legal issues with regards to protecting data held on the network, and the professional requirements expected. It is indicated within the case that no personal information was accessed. This information is given by the US Military, which may be questioned as it would be to their advantage to deny that any personal information was accessed. The Data Protection Act (1998) dictates that the data controller must provide adequate security to protect personal information (Data Protection Act 1998, 1998). Failure to provide adequate security even though an accident is not an excuse as Cambridgeshire County Council most recently found out (du Preez, 2011). A member of staff lost a memory stick by accident; however the memory stick did not have encryption software installed as it should have when it contained sensitive data on it. Similarly the network administrators did not intend for McKinnon to access the network, yet they failed to provide security in the chance of this happening As McKinnon was able to access computer systems easily due to lax security, it is likely that the US and the network administrators would be in breach of this legislation.

Horrors of Animal Research, Testing, and Experimentation Essay

The Horrors of Animal Testing    The torture and murder of millions of animals annually has been occurring for centuries now. Every year we ignore it, and every year the numbers grow. The act of vivisection or the practice of experimenting on animals began because of religious prohibitions against dissection of human corpses. After religious leaders lifted these prohibitions, it was too late. Vivisection had become a major part of medical and educational research. As well as major part of product testing in many companies. Experimenting and testing on animals is morally wrong because, it is inhumane and torturous. We, as a country, should not condone cruelty to animals. Why is it a person can be charged with a crime for not feeding their pet, but these companies torture and murder millions of animals and nothing happens to them? Because we as people will do nothing to stop these hanious crimes. The reason we cannot prevent these terrible acts is because we do not know they are occurring. Millions of people do not realize simple products and drugs we use every day are tested on animals. Although animal testing of certain pharmaceuticals and chemicals is still mandated by law, but there is no law that requires testing of personal care and household products. These laws that require animal testing of certain drugs and chemicals were developed very casually back in the 1920Æs. Today, we know that non-animal test methods exist and that these tests are more accurate in predicting toxicity than are crude, cruel tests on animals. Many companies resist progress because the crude nature of animal tests allow them to market many products that might be determined too toxic if cell culture tests were used. These are the companies who... ...any new alternatives to dissection. These include many new computer programs and very thorough coloring books. These teach without the constant supply of animals. Animal testing is a horrific action that takes place everyday. In today's society we should not condone this behavior. It wastes a lot of money and time. Everyone should be seeking a way to stop these terrible acts. Works Cited 1)Sadistic Scandal. n. pag. Online. Internet. 28 April. 1998. Available: peta- online.org 2)Testing Without Torture. n. pag. Online. Internet. 28 April. 1998. Available: peta-online.org 3)Toxic and Tragic. n. pag. Online. Internet. 28 April. 1998. Available: peta-online.org 4)Fisher, Lawrence M., 3 Companies Speed Artificial Skin, The New York Times, Sept 12, 1990. 5)Branna, Tom, Animal Testing Alternatives: Moving Closer to Validation?, February 1995

The Elusive Term :: Essays Papers

The Elusive Term The word "ring-giver" is slippery because it does not stick to its logical meaning. Once researched and defined, it is known that a ring-giver is a king or overlord. Not just a king can be called a ring-giver. A person in an administrative position can be referred to as a ring-giver. The thanes who received this award of arm-ring or neck-ring proved their battle-worthiness and were held in high respect by their kinsmen. Therefore the warriors kept close watch of their rewards. After research, one also finds the term "ring-giver" is a kenning; or Anglo - Saxon metaphor. Ring-giver is an elusive word. Separately, "ring" is defined as an ornamental circular band worn on a finger, and "giver" is defined as to hand over something. Putting those two definitions together, ring-giver implies the act of giving rings. However, this is not at all the case. A ring-giver is a king or overlord. Someone in power is also referred to as being the ring-giver. In the Norton Anthology we read "in heroic poetry at least, a principal form of currency was the gold arm ring; which had the advantage of being valuable, portable and showy; hence the king always being referred to as 'ring-giver.' " (28). Although it was usually the king who was given the name "ring-giver," anyone in power, could be given the title. In the "Grendel, Beowulf's most famous enemy" site, we see another occurrence of a ring-giver being born: "When the retainers [soldiers] returned from battle, they were expected to turn over their bounty to their chief, who would then redistribute it according to the performance of each retainer during battle. Thus, we often find the dryhten [overlord] being referred to as the 'gold-giver' or 'ring-giver.' Usually the king had the power to distribute bounty or rewards, but here we see that anyone in the leadership position might have been given the illustrious title of "ring-giver." The king or overlord gave out arm-rings or neck-rings to promote valor and fighting for land and king. The individual who received the ring was honored by his fellow soldiers. These rings worn on either arm or neck, gave the wearer recognition and instant envy in others. They were symbols of strength and courage; there must have been many attempts to steal such objects of monetary and social value. However, it is doubtful that the brave men who received such awards ever gave the opportunity to lose their trophies.

Edgar Degas, man the myth the artist :: essays research papers fc

It is in his concepts of man versus himself, his studying of light, capturing a moment and use of large shapes to flatten space that makes Edgar Degas an impressionist. In comparison to his peers, Degas has a tight style of painting and defined, characterized, figures; yet, it is not style that defines impressionism: â€Å"Unlike realism, impressionism rarely responded to politics†¦ impressionist painters preferred genre subjects, especially scenes of leisure activities, entertainment and landscape, and impressionism was more influenced by Japanese prints and new developments in photograph†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Adams, 805) Laurie Schneider Adams defines the impressionist movement, being careful not to describe the use of paint and its thick application. She does this to clarify that impressionism is a concept not a style. While most impressionist do coat their canvas, style is second to the idea that the observed properties of light and color. It is in this understanding that Edgar Degas’ Ballet Dancer with Arms Crossed is an impressionistic painting.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  With an asymmetrical composition, Edgar Degas’ 1872 painting, Ballet Dancer with Arms Crossed is 24 1/8 x 19 7/8 inches large. Large graphic shapes, mostly red or yellow in tone, form a brooding dancer. A sensation of three dimensionality is achieved with two light sources, one bring and the other dim. The front of her body is dimly lit, allowing soft light to give great detail to the collarbone and face. Although never confirmed, this painting is most likely one of Degas numerous sketches. A notorious perfectionist, Degas would often bring his original charcoal drawings to finish in order to prepare for a future piece. Before impressionism, during the realist movement, there was an underlining message of man versus nature. With the industrial revolution, a new message arrived: man versus himself. This message was most evident in Degas’ many equestrian paintings; Laurie Schneider Adams states, â€Å"In At the Races, Degas’ figures are in a state of restlessness†¦ At the left, a single horse gallops into the picture plane as his jockey reins him. The arrested movement of the galloping horse draws attention to the distant train that continues on†¦ Degas refers to the contrast between mechanized and natural movement and to the changing modes of transportation created by the industrial revolution.† (Adams, 821) The industrial Revolution continued mans affair with himself: the ambition to always perfect, refine, and move forward. Degas often composes natural and unnatural forms juxtapose, in Ballet Dancer with Arms Crossed the comparison is in light.

Areas of Psychology

Malinda S. Kline March 13, 2013 Module 1: Assignment 3 PSY:101 General Psychology A03 KlineM_W1_A3. doc Instructor Angela Snelling Areas of Specialization Number |Subjects of study in |Areas of specialization in |Definition and key points of this specialization (be|Rationale (reason why you matched |Possible research method of | | |psychology |psychology (match with below |sure to use professional sources) |this subject of study with this |study (experimental, | | | |options) | |specialization in psychology) |correlational, observational, | | | | | | |case study, interview) and why | | | | | | |this one may fit the best | |1 | | |Definition |I chose Biological Psychology for |Observational Research- would be| | |Studying the causes of |Biological psychology or |â€Å"A science concerned with the integration of |this subject of study because it |used to see when a person’s | | |aggression in reaction to |Neuropsychologist |psychological observation on behavior and the mind |ba sically evaluates cause and |behavior changes and if any | | |others in their environment. | |Neurological Observations on the brain and nervous |effect. If something is causing a |outside factors incited the | | | | |system. † (Neuropsychology definition, 2013) |person to be aggressive to others |behavior. | | | | |in a certain environment then | | | | | |Key Points |something Biological could be |Interview- would be used to ask | | | | |â€Å"Biological principles to the study of mental |going on. Biological Psychology |the person why they became | | | | |processes and behavior.The field examines the basic|and Neuropsychologists study this |aggressive to a person. By | | | | |biological processes that underlie normal and |behavior to find out why, and how |asking the subject this directly| | | | |abnormal behavior at the level of nerves, |to stop or prevent it further. |you get their side of the story | | | | |neurotransmitters, and brain circuitry. † (Humphreys,| |an d not just inferences. | | | |2011) | | | |2 | | |Definition |I chose Developmental Psychology |Observational Research- could be| | |Studying the period when a |Developmental psychology |â€Å"Branch of psychology concerned with changes in |for this subject because the time |used because it’s observing a | | |newborn child recognizes his| |cognitive, motivational, psychophysiological, and |that a newborn child recognizes |subject’s behavior for something| | |or her parent. | |social functioning that occur throughout the human |his parents is part of |specific or non specific. It | | | | |life span. † (Developmental Psychology, 2013) |Development.Developmental |would be a good study because | | | | | |Psychology studies the cognitive |the only way to tell the | | | | |Key Points |functioning of a person over their|development of a child or person| | | | |â€Å"Infant cognition, conceptual development, language |life span. It helps to say at what|is to observe th em. | | | | |acquisition, and the development of symbolic |point in life humans will develop | | | | | |competence. † (University of Illinois Board of |certain traits, skills, and |Correlation Research- could be | | | | |Trustees , 2009) |abilities. used because it shows a | | | | | | |relationship between two | | | | |â€Å"Focuses on the psychological changes of the human | |variables. The variables would | | | | |mind throughout the life span. Developmental | |be the child’s behavior, and how| | | | |psychologists study infants, the elderly, and every | |other children this age behave. | | | | |age in between. † (Humphreys, 2011) | | |3 | | |Definition |I chose Social and Personality |Correlation Research- would be | | |Sharing some research about |Social and personality |â€Å"Understanding how people think, feels, and acts in |Psychology for this subject |good to evaluate what coping | | |the best strategies to | |real-world social situations. † (Psyc hology |because it relates to how people |skills affect what stress. | | |manage work place stress. | |Department, Cornell University , 2008) |respond to stress at work.Social | | | | | | |and Personality Psychology studies|Interview- would be good because| | | | |Key Points |a personality and how that |you can make a Case Study out of| | | | |â€Å"How people make sense of the world around them. † |particular personality responds to|interviewing several people | | | | |(Psychology Department, Cornell University , 2008) |different situations, like work |about their coping skills, and | | | | | |stress as in the example.It helps|how they help them manage work | | | | | |evaluate how people comprehend the|related stressors. | | | | | |world around them and respond to | | | | | | |the situations. | | |4 | | |Definition |I chose Health Psychology for this|Case Study/ Experimental- would | | Determining which chemical |Health psychology |â€Å"Physical Health can be affected by t he things that |subject because health psychology |be good because you are actually| | |or neurotransmitter might be| |people do, by the way they process information, |studies how chemicals affect a |testing the question. You are | | |activated when people use | |career choice, family dynamics, life troubles and |person’s health, and mental |performing an experiment by | | |coffee as a memory or | |the environment in which we live. † (Dr. Cheryl |health. Health psychology studies |taking subjects and exposing | | |performance â€Å"enhancer†. |MacDonald, 2013) |how certain contributing factors |them to certain chemicals and | | | | | |can affect a person’s ability to |studying the results of tests, | | | | |Key Points |remember things, or activate |brain scans, simple questions, | | | | |â€Å"Exploring biological, psychological, cultural, |different neurotransmitters in the|etc. | | | | |societal, and environmental factors of life, and how|brain. | | | | | |each of these affects physical health. † (Dr.Cheryl | | | | | | |MacDonald, 2013) | | | |5 | | |Definition |I chose Cognitive Psychology for |Observational Research- would be| | |Reviewing the thought |Cognitive psychology |â€Å"A branch of psychology concerned with mental |this subject because this studies |good for this situation because | | |process of someone who has | |processes (as perception, thinking, learning, and |the mental processes of the brain. |the subject may be able to | | |difficulties remembering | |memory) especially with respect to the internal |If a person is having problems |remember certain things, or only| | |things long-term. |events occurring between sensory stimulation and the|remembering things somewhere there|can remember things for a | | | | |overt expression of behavior—compare† (Merriam |is a miss communication in the |certain amount of time. This is | | | | |Webster Incorperated, 2013)   |brain affecting the person’ s |where Case Study or Experimental| | | | | |memory. Cognitive Psychology |Research could be used as well | | | | |Key Points |studies the brain to find a way to|to study the brain further.Te | | | | |â€Å"  (1) Human cognition can at least in principle be |help people remember or find out |see why the subject is | | | | |fully revealed by the scientific method, that is, |how to correct the problem with |forgetting things and what the | | | | |individual components of mental processes can be |the memory, either by medication |person is forgetting. | | | | |identified and understood† ((Costall and Still, |or possible medical procedures or |Interview- will also work good | | | | |1987; Dreyfus, 1979; Searle, 1990) (Dosher, 2007)) |a specific learning interaction. because you have to interview a | | | | | | |person to see what they can and | | | | |â€Å"(2) Internal mental processes can be described in | |can’t do. | | | | |terms of rules or  algorithms  in info rmation | | | | | | |processing models. There has been much recent debate| | | | | | |on these assumptions. ( (Costall and Still, 1987; | | | | | | |Dreyfus, 1979; Searle, 1990) (Dosher, 2007)) | | | |6 | | |Definition |I chose Clinical Psychology for |Interview Research- would be the| | |Methods to gain possible |Clinical Psychology or |â€Å"The field of Clinical Psychology integrates |this subject because this is the |best option for this situation | | |diagnoses in efforts to |Clinical Psychologists |science, theory, and practice to understand, |beginning process of mental health|because you have to interview a | | |understand emotional | |predict, and alleviate maladjustment, disability, |treatment. Clinical Psychologists |person to find out how they are | | |problems. |and discomfort as well as to promote human |perform evaluations on patients to|feeling, to find out how they | | | | |adaptation, adjustment, and personal development. † |diagnose and treat mental |respon d to situations. | | | | |(American Psychological Association, 2013) |illnesses, or help people cope | | | | | | |with stressful situations in their|Observational Research- is | | | | |Key Points lives by teaching coping skills. |another good study for this | | | | |â€Å"intellectual, emotional, biological, psychological,|Clinical psychology is a form of |situation because sometimes a | | | | |social, and behavioral aspects of human functioning |treatment to gain information |person can say something but | | | | |across the life span, in varying cultures, and at |about a person in order to treat |their actions are the opposite. | | | |all socioeconomic levels† (American Psychological |them for emotional disturbances |For example if a person says | | | | |Association, 2013) |they may be having, so they can |they’re not sad but their | | | | | |live a better and more gainful |actions are crying you can tell | | | | | |life. |with observation that the person| | | | | | | is really sad. | Bibliography American Psychological Association. (2013). About Clinical Psychology. Retrieved March 11, 2013, from American Psychological Association, Division 12 Society of Clinical Psychology: http://www. apa. org/divisions/div12/aboutcp. html Developmental Psychology. (2013). Retrieved March 11, 2013, from Merriam Webster Encyclopedia: http://www. merriam-webster. om/concise/developmental+psychology? show=0&t=1363046372 Dosher, Z. -L. L. (2007). Cognative Psychology. Retrieved March 11, 2013, from Scholarpeida, 2(8):2769 : http://www. scholarpedia. org/article/Cognitive_psychology Dr. Cheryl MacDonald, R. P. (2013, Febuary 20). Health Psychology Center Presents: What is Health Psychology? Retrieved March 11, 2013, from Health Psychology Center: http://healthpsychology. org/what-is-health-psychology/ (2008). Psychology and Life; Research Methods in Psychology. In R. J. GERRIG, & P. G. ZIMBARDO, Psychology and Life, 18th Edition (p. Chapter 1; Chapter2). Boston: Pe arson Education Inc. Humphreys, K. (2011, April 9).What are the Areas of Study within Psychology? Retrieved March 12, 2013, from Psychology In Action Communicateing Interesting and Relevant Psychological Research to the Public: http://www. psychologyinaction. org/2011/04/09/what-are-the-areas-of-study-within-psychology/ Linda M. Woolf, P. (2013). Developmental Research Methods. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from Professor of Psychology, Webster University: http://www2. webster. edu/~woolflm/methods/devresearchmethods. html Merriam Webster Incorperated. (2013). Cognitive Psychology. Retrieved March 11, 2013, from Merriam Webster Dictionary: http://www. merriam-webster. com/medical/cognitive%20psychology Neuropsychology definition. (2013).Retrieved March 11, 2013, from Merriam Webster Dictionary: http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/neuropsychologist Psychology Department, Cornell University . (2008). Social and Personality Psychology. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from Cornell Univers ity Department of Psychology: http://www. psych. cornell. edu/SocPsych University of Illinois Board of Trustees . (2009). Developmental Division. Retrieved March 12, 2013, from Psychology University Of Illinoise: http://www. psychology. illinois. edu/about/divisions/developmental/ UYEMURA, B. -A. (2011). An Overview of Health Psychology. Retrieved March 11, 2013, from Psych Central: http://psychcentral. com/lib/2011/an-overview-of-health-psychology/all/1/

Recruiting, Selecting, Orienting, and Training

| |Recruiting |Selecting |Orienting |Training | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Company’s Web site |Job interview by human resources |Explanation of the |Apprenticeship training | | | |department |organization’s levels of | | | | | |authority | | | | |>>Interested applicants will be | |>> A supervised training and | | |>>Most large companies have their |interviewed as initial screening |>>A large company organization |testing of a new employee is very | | |own websites which usually |by the human resource department. |usually has the hierarchy of |common in large companies. Some | | |includes a section for job |Prescreened applicants will go |the authorities. The new |large companies even require | | |opportunities. Online job |through supervisor’s interview for|employee must be aware of the |apprenticeship training as a | | |application has become a popular |selection. The interview will be |certain level of authority and |requirement prior to signing of | | |method of recruitment. Interested |either a structured where the |the organization. This is |the work contract. An employee is | | |applicants who meet the |questions re prepared or |usually done by the human |trained and tested for a specified| | |requirements can post an |unstructured interview where |resource department or a |minimum period of time until the | | |application and the specified |random questions are often asked. |representative from the higher |desired work skills are achieved. | | |requirements. The human resource | |authorities. An employee who fails to show | | |department may choose or contact | | |satisfactorily may possibly be | | |the candidates for screening | | |disqualified from the job. | | |interview and list candidates for | | |Training is usually carried out by| | |final interview by the supervisor. | | |designated personnel in | | | | | |coordination with human resources | | | | | |department. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Large company | | | | | | | | | | | | |Class ified ads in newspaper |Job interview by immediate |Rules, regulations, policies, |Computer-assisted instruction | | | |supervisors |and procedures |(CAI) | | |>>Classified ads are frequently | | | | | |used by large companies as a |>>Pre-screened qualified |>> Large companies have a set |>> Computer assisted instruction | | |recruitment tool. The human |candidates will be interviewed by |rules, regulations, policies, |is similar to programmed | | resource department gets in |the supervisor for final |and procedures which is very |instruction but in more modernized| | |contact with certain newspapers to|employment decision. Immediate |important for any new employee |technology. Materials and | | |post the vacant post with few |supervisors are usually involved |to know. This usually is given |processes and relevant | | |details of the required employee |in final hiring of prospective |priority during the orientation|instructions are computer-based | | |to fill in the vacancy. |applic ants subject to approval of |period as any employee needs to|where the new employee are | | | |the higher authorities. work according to the company’s|required to read and review the | | | | |standards and in accordance to |instructions and answer the | | | | |the set guidance. |related questions after looking at| | | | | |the materials. Some | | | | | |computer-assisted instructions are| | | | | |sometimes internet-based. This | | | | | |instruction is done by human | | | | | |resource department or designated | | | | | |personnel. | | | | | | | | |State or private employment |Screening by state or private |Skills training |Classroom training | | |agencies |employment agency | | | | | | | | | | |>>Some large company gets in | | | | |>>Many large companies use |contact with state or private |>>Large companies follow their |>> Classroom training which is | | |employment agencies to hire for |employment company for hiring a |set standards and the |common in large companies is | | |needed employee. Employment |staff who is already prescreened |accomplishment of these is only|usually a continuation of | | |agencies have their screening |based on agency tools. Human |achieved if the employees use |orientation. It includes lectures,| | |method for choosing skillful |resource department gets in |their skills accordingly. To |exercises, visual presentations, | | |applicants. The human resource |contact with th e agency to hire an|ensure accomplishment of the |and skills enhancement activities. | |department gets in contact with |employee which is usually placed |company standards, though the |The human resource department | | |employment agencies to bring in |on temporary contract terms. |newly hired staffs are |usually organizes the training | | |some of the prescreened skillful | |skillful, skills training |with coordination of related | | |employees. | |remain a basic part of |department and designated | | | | |orientation. Skill training is |personnel. Some part of | | | | |usually done by the education |orientation program, | | | | |or staff development department|apprenticeship training, and other| | | | |in collaboration with the human|related program such as safety | | | | |resource department. |program are usually incorporated | | | | | |in classroom training. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Job postings within the company |Employment tests |Job functions and |On-the-job training(OJT) | | | | |responsibilities | | | |>>This is usually done by human | | |>>On the job training is usually | | |resource department posting the |>> Employment tests which is also |>> Small companies usually have|implemented by small companies | | |details of the requirements for |conducted by large companies, is |short and simple orientation |especially when no formal training| | |the vacant post. Interested |commonly used by small companies |program for the new employees. |is offered by a company. | | |applicants will then contact the |as well. The test is usually given|Rules and regulations are |On-the-job training is simple and | | |human resource department for more|by company supervisor if human |usually not exhaustive and |is usually done by designated | | |information and application |resource department is not |orientation requires very basic|staff as the mentor of the new | | |requirements. |available. The results of the test|things. Job functions and |employee or by the supervisor | | | |will take a part in hiring |responsibilities however are |himself/herself. Any regular staff| | | |decision. |usually among the main |can also do the on-the-job | | | | |priorities in orientation. |training through accidental | | | | | |teaching while at work. | | | | | | | | | | | | |Small Company | | | | | | | | | | | | |Employee referrals |Employment applications |Introduction to fellow workers |Job rotation, or cross-training | | | | | | | | | |>> Employment application is a |>>Working in small companies |>> Job rotation or cross training | | |>> Employee referral is very |universal tool used by all |requires establishment of good |is a very common training practice| | |common in small company |companies. The small companies |rapport among all the workers. |in small companies, though it is | | |recruitment. Trusted employees |particularly those with limited |Introduction of a new employee |also observed in large companies. | |usually spread out the news of job|facilities largely depend on |to fellow workers is much |Job rotation maybe on monthly, | | |vacancy to any of his /her |written employment applications |highlighted in small companies |bimonthly or at any specified | | |contacts and recommend a |along with other required |as compared to large companies. |period basis. Job rotation and | | |prospective candidate to the |employment certificates. |It is not surprising for small |cross training is usually aimed at| | |employer. A major drawback on this|Applications are usually reviewed |company to throw a welcome |developing staff that can be | | |process s that referrals are |by company supervisor or human |party to a new employee during |placed at any job that has staff | | |sometimes not based on skills or |resource department if available. |the formal introduction. |deficiency such as during any the | | |what they know but on who they | |Introduction is usually done by|absence or leave of some s taff. | | |know. | |the department head or a | | | | | |designated staff. | | | | | | | | |Job bidding |Resumes |Benefits and compensation |Programmed training | | | | | | | | | | |>> Small companies may or may | | | |>>Job bidding is very common in |>>Resume which is also universally|not state the benefits and |>> Programmed written instructions| | |small companies mostly based on |required by most companies large |compensation in the written |are usually provided to new | | |seniority, job skills, and other |or small, is often one of the main|contract. The details of the |employee. A time is provided for | | |qualifications that give certain |bases of small companies in |benefits and compensation are |the new employee to read and | | |employee advantage over the |selection of applicants. Small |therefore usually included as a|review all the instructions in | | |others. Senior and highly |companies are usually not |part of orientation. This is |materials provided. A programmed | | |qualified employees usually bid |exhaustive in conducting |usually done by the company |training is usually done by the | | |for higher vacant positions. interviews and most of the time |supervisor or human resource |company supervisor or designated | | | |after careful review of resume |department if available as part|personnel. The employee considered| | | |with the supporting documents, |of orientation. |to be on training will be required| | | |applicants are chosen for final | |to answer questions based on the | | | |interview. | |materials provided thereafter. |

E-Culture: Ethical Issiues

Topic: E-Culture:Ethical Issiues Electronic technology is changing our life-style to a great extent. Advancement in the fields of information and communication technology (ICT) and electronics has resulted in the emergence e-commerce, e-business, e-banking, e-mails, e-organizations, e-governance, e-journals, e-books, e-medicine, internet, web-shopping, etc, which have set in a trend for e-culture. Electronic culture is enveloping the entire world, it is a global phenomenon.It is the ICT-availability and Internet access that provides opportunities for production of e-culture. e-Culutre: involves preserving and presenting cultural heritage in line with the challenges of the future; exhibiting valuable cultural assets clearly and informatively using state-of-the-art technology . However, the rapid development of ICT globally also has led to the growth of different ethical issues and made life enormously complex.These issues have virtually no boundaries and may affect any country across the globe. â€Å"Ethics are moral standards that help guide behaviour, actions, and choices. Ethics are grounded in the notion of responsibility (as free moral agents, individuals, organizations, and societies are responsible for the actions that they take) and accountability (individuals, organizations, and society should be held accountable to others for the consequences of their actions)†.ICT ethics are not exceptional from the above-mentioned view of ethics. According to some estimates, three quarter of the present generation of people in the countries saturated with computers will be spending 80 per cent of their free time in the cyberspace, therefore it is important to review the ethical issues because it threatens social environment of societies.Globalization and digital convergence in the emerging knowledge society has raised complex ethical issues in relation to the freedom of expression, access to information, right to privacy, intellectual and property rights. The concept is electronic commerce is the use of internet and the web to do businesses. ‘Commercial transactions involve the exchange of value across organizational or individual boundaries in return for products and services’.The internet and it use of e-com have raised several ethical issues about protection of customer and companies. One of the main issues for e-com is intellectual property which includes copyrights and software piracy. The explosion of interest in the internet, with growing numbers of people obtaining access to it has also increased the potential in ethical issue like breeching privacy and security. Purpose of this report is to address the several ethical issue faced by eCulture in terms of e-commerce and its impact on e-commerce .