Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life Essay Example Essay Example

Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life Essay Example Paper Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life Essay Introduction Tutor: Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life Essay Body Paragraphs Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life The terms human dignity and dignity of life are often used interchangeably. It is significant to understand that these two terms were of the approach different aspects and ideologies of life although there is sometimes a thin line between them. In the history of the human being, these two terms may have meant different things to two different groups. If, for example, these two groups were to be labeled the elite and the oppressed groups, the similarities and the differences will be discussed in relation to human dignity and the dignity of life depending on the historical period. To comprehend and to appreciate the interconnectedness of life, to live and to let live, to value the small things, to die with dignity, amongst others, are the phrases that related to the term the dignity of life. Respect, self worth, equal treatment, necessities of life, integrity, amongst others, come with the term the human dignity (Bonefeld Kosmas 35). Although thes e seem quite straight forward and clear, they mean different things to the groups mentioned above. Some aspects of these two terms are similar to both the elite and the oppressed groups. The freedom to search for the life necessities such as shelter, water, food, social support, just to mention but a few has been evident since man came into being. Man has been known to hunt and cultivate as a way providing food for himself. In the early times, when people used to own slaves, the slaves used to work, and in exchange have food, clothing and shelter provided to them by their masters. The slaves also used to have families, and that is how they multiplied. During the colonial period, the colonialists allowed the colonies to live in groups, go on with their own activities of fending for themselves and keep the normal social life the elite/the colonialists had (Malpas Norelle 57). Although their social and economic life may not have resembled that of the elite, they still had a life. The oppressed and the elite groups have been sharing the human dignity concept of believing anything one wants. Since time immemorial, the people have been able to believe what they wanted especially when it came to religious beliefs. In the Roman Empire, slaves still believed in the religion of their ancestral land (Kim 76). Although the missionaries and the colonialists played a significant role in the influence of Christianity in the African community, many Africans still continued with their African practices even after the reign of the colonialists. Today, it is evident that the question of what one believes does not depend on ones social status. People are either influenced by where they have come from (background), where they are or their own understanding. This can be explained by how homosexuals view themselves as oppressed since they are not allowed to fully express themselves in public. In such a case, the elite are the heterosexuals while the oppressed are the bisexuals, hom osexuals and the transsexuals Unfortunately, the significance of such a concept as to live and to let live started being of significance in the late 20th century. The elite considered themselves as the people to decide how long the oppressed would live and how they would die. A master would kill a slave as he wished with not as much as a question from the authorities. A black man would easily end up dead while in the hands of the police without any further investigations of how that came to be (Ugwuanyi 528). A woman would be beaten and finally get killed by the husband without much concern from the family let alone the authorities. Although such actions call for the law’s intervention today, some concerns are still raised on the competence of the investigations being done and the actions taken. Respect, which is perceived as a form of human dignity, is meant to be respect from others. Unfortunately, when it comes to the elite and the oppressed groups, the elite expect respec t from the oppressed, but the oppressed do not expect the same from the elite. In the past, the oppressed, who were mostly the slaves and peasants, did not respect themselves. They felt that their obligation was to serve their masters and the rich in the society (Malpas Norelle 60). The peasants were referred as third or fourth-class citizens depending on the society. There was the royal family, the extremely rich, the middles class and the peasants. During periods of slavery, the 19th and the early twentieth century, the whites and the Blacks represented the early elite and the oppressed groups respectively. During that period, the whites were the only people to be respected, to die with dignity, to be shown compassion, to be treated equally and to acknowledge the ambiguity of the world, amongst other concepts. They acknowledged that they had more human and life dignity as compared to the blacks and so they treated them like so. Although this has slowly been erased from the physic al world and the concepts of human dignity and the dignity of life been appreciated by all parties, there are that mental part that still shows discrimination. White dominated countries do not have as many black leaders as the population dictates. Waiters and servers in the African countries will still prefer serving a Caucasian customer faster than a dark-skinned customer will. Many women do not hold leadership positions as their male counterparts. For example, there are only 12 female prime ministers,11 female presidents and 3 queens in the world. This is out of the many countries, and kingdoms we have in the world. It is approximated that 51 to 60 females have either acted as heads of states or been the heads of state after the Second World War. Although human dignity and the dignity of life may not necessarily be entirely responsible for such statistics, the aspects of inequality, empowerment of the marginalized groups and other issues affect the outcome of such statistics. When it comes to the value of small things as far as dignity of life is concerned, this might mean different things to the elite and the oppressed groups. Due to circumstances, the oppressed people value small things more than the elite do. During the slavery time, something as small as a meal in a day, no matter how small, was extremely appreciated (Ugwuanyi 529). Slaves were sold, and so it was hard to come by slaves either of the same family serving one master or in the same region. This made them value and appreciate one another very much as each was on his or her own. In the African American community during the 18th, the 19th and the early 20th century, family members were the most important, than the friends and neighbors, then the rest of the community. It is the reason why it was common to see a family inclusive of the extended family. This extends to date. The oppressed such as the poor and the disabled tend to appreciate the small things more than the elite. A beggar on the s treet appreciates a smile and a quarter more from a stranger more than a chief executive in a company’s office. The rich, even in the past, were not only concerned about one meal, but they were also concerned about the three meals, cooked and served well with wine and fruits as accompaniments. They were also concerned with banquets, balls and other celebrations. Even today, the elite or the rich are first concerned about how the community and the whole society think about them, before they are concerned about how their families perceive them. Issues exist concerning the human dignity and the dignity of life that can be learnt from our global neighbors and our near ancestors. Our ancestors believed in integrity and the emphasis of it. This is explained by the American Constitution, which was written in the 18th Century, is still followed even today with as few as less than thirty amendments (Bonefeld Kosmas 67). The founding fathers of the nation believed in integrity, and th ey acted in ways that portrayed integrity. A more specific example is where most families have something that has been passed on from one generation down to the next generation. It may be a piece of land, an expensive jewelry or a souvenir that was entrusted to the family members by the ancestors. In the quest for knowledge, the ancestors in the African countries and other countries globally embraced education thus leading to the spread of the literacy all over the world. The ancestors in the colonized states believed that they were dying a dignified death when they died fighting for their countries. This is how countries came to achieve their independence. Whether it is in Asia, Africa, America, Europe or any other continent, people believed and still do in the right to celebrate through dance and music. There is not one single group in the world which did not engage in dance and music especially during celebrations as a way of expressing their joy. Cultures, communities, administr ations, occupations, sharing of knowledge, patriotism, search of prosperity, amongst other concepts were founded by our ancestors. They pursued and passed on from one generation to another, as a way of showing each generation their significance. Neighboring countries in the globe also have a way of showing the values in human dignity and the dignity of life. In Asian countries such as North Korea, China and Japan, a small bow before greeting one another or failing to look once superior directly in the eye is a form of ones respect for another (Kim 75). Countries such as China, Singapore and India are known to value families immensely thus they live in large families. The Maasai of Kenya and other cultures in Africa and Asia still practice their traditional beliefs and wear traditional clothes in appreciation of their culture. The ancestors and the global neighbors have taught us and continue teaching us the dignity of life and human dignity. The traditional songs sang during the soc ials gatherings, the recognition of authority where one acknowledges their superior, doing things with integrity; these are ways the ancestors and our neighbors show the significance of human dignity and the dignity of life. It is agreed that the morality ethical issues are of more concern today than they were a few years back. Children are more rude and disrespectful to their parents today that they were some time in the early twentieth century. Every individual has a right to experience human dignity or dignity of life whether by offering or by receiving. Our ancestors, global neighbors and time have taught us the significance of these two terms. They are what keep people together and protects the human race from itself. If the human race decides to go against the concepts that come along with these two terms, they will drive themselves into extinction. Works Cited Bonefeld, Werner Kosmas Psychopedis. Human dignity: social autonomy and the critique of capitalism. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2005. Print. Kim, Hyung-Kon. The Idea of Human Dignity in Korea: An Ethico-Religious Approach and Application. Lewiston: Edwin Mellen Press, 2007. Print. Malpas, Jeff, and Norelle Lickiss. Perspectives on Human Dignity: A Conversation. Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Springer, 2007. Print. Ugwuanyi, Chikere. â€Å"Book Reviews: Towards a Fuller Human Identity: a Phenomenology of Family Life, Social Harmony, and the Recovery of the Black Self. by Pius Ojara.† The Heythrop Journal. 49.3 (2008): 527-532. Print. We will write a custom essay sample on Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life Essay Example specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Human Dignity and the Dignity of Life Essay Example specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

Overseas Territories of the United Kingdom

Overseas Territories of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom (UK) is an island nation located in Western Europe. It has a long history of worldwide exploration and it is known for its historic colonies around the world. The UKs mainland consists of the island of Great Britain (England, Scotland,  and Wales) and Northern Ireland. In addition, there are 14 overseas territories of Britain that are remnants of former British colonies. These territories are not officially a part of the UK, as most are self-governing (but they do remain under its jurisdiction). List of British Territories The following is a list of the 14 British Overseas Territories arranged by land area. For reference, their populations and capital cities have also been included. 1. British Antarctic Territory Area: 660,000 square miles (1,709,400 sq km) Population: No permanent population Capital: Rothera 2. Falkland Islands Area: 4,700 square miles (12,173 sq km) Population: 2,955 (2006 estimate) Capital: Stanley 3. South Sandwich and the South Georgia Islands Area: 1,570 square miles (4,066 sq km) Population: 30 (2006 estimate) Capital: King Edward Point 4. Turks and Caicos Islands Area: 166 square miles (430 sq km) Population: 32,000 (2006 estimate) Capital: Cockburn Town 5. Saint Helena, Saint Ascension, and Tristan da Cunha Area: 162 square miles (420 sq km) Population: 5,661 (2008 estimate) Capital: Jamestown 6. Cayman Islands Area: 100 square miles (259 sq km) Population: 54,878 (2010 estimate) Capital: George Town 7. Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia Area: 98 square miles (255 sq km) Population: 14,000 (date unknown) Capital: Episkopi Cantonment 8. The British Virgin Islands Area: 59 square miles (153 sq km) Population: 27,000 (2005 estimate) Capital: Road Town 9. Anguilla Area: 56.4 square miles (146 sq km) Population: 13,600 (2006 estimate) Capital: The Valley 10. Montserrat Area: 39 square miles (101 sq km) Population: 4,655 (2006 estimate) Capital: Plymouth (abandoned); Brades (center of government today) 11. Bermuda Area: 20.8 square miles (54 sq km) Population: 64,000 (2007 estimate) Capital: Hamilton 12. British Indian Ocean Territory Area: 18 square miles (46 sq km) Population: 4,000 (date unknown) Capital: Diego Garcia 13. Pitcairn Islands Area: 17 square miles (45 sq km) Population: 51 (2008 estimate) Capital: Adamstown 14. Gibraltar Area: 2.5 square miles (6.5 sq km) Population: 28,800 (2005 estimate) Capital: Gibraltar

Economics 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Economics 4 - Essay Example The context of this study is to address the following issues: The country identified for possible expansion of Country A in Asia is South Korea because this country has established relations with the United States, the home country of County A. South Korea also imports machinery and equipment from the United States and exports motor vehicles to the same country. As such, it is assumed that there will be a need for the product of Country A by Korean manufacturers. Company A should take cognizance of the cultural issues in South Korea in designing its marketing strategy of doing business in Korea. According to World business culture.com, it is very important to keep in mind that the quality of developed relations is the key to the success in dealing business in South Korea and it is developed by knowing the following cultural issues: South Koreans observe hierarchical business structure that recognizes major decisions coming from the top and transmitted down for implementation. Company A will find that much of the companies in South Korea are family-run companies wherein much of the power and ownership is with the founder’s family. Aside from the formal hierarchy, Koreans also gives importance to informal hierarchy based on personal and loyalty relations. Thus, Company A should know somebody or need a referral to establish business conncectons. Korean approach of management is holistic such that they take care of the well-being of their employees including their personal life. Initial meetings with Koreans should be polite and intended only for relation building, and most of all, do not show impatience during meetings. Koreans are particular about respect so that the delegation should be balanced, a senior officer should also meet a senior officer. (Worldbusiness.com) Company A’s vision is to double its size within the next four years. The marketing strategy identified to support this vision is to expand business in Asia. Tactics in doing

What are the principal institutions of the European Union To what Assignment

What are the principal institutions of the European Union To what extent do these institutions engage with the sources of EU law - Assignment Example The parliament runs for a period of five years and then elections held. The origin of the European Union was the steel and coal community. Its formulation took place in 1950s and has grown tremendously to what called the European Union. The administration of the European Union cannot be done by a single body but a series of institutions. They have recorded growth since 1960s. In these institutions, there are three political bodies which have the legislative and executive power in the Union (Peterson and Shackleton 2012, p. 115). One of the bodies that form the European Union is the parliament. It is in Strasburg basis, and it is an elected body. The members of this body also called the MEPs for the members of the European parliament. The voters of the member states elect these members. However, there is no seriousness among the citizens in voting these members and law turn out can be put in records. The European Union is a consultant body and not a legislative body. It consultation on the issues that influence changes and also policy suggestion lies on this body. However, it cannot introduce these policies. This can only be done by the commission. The parliament holds two powers, but it is almost unlikely that they can ever practice them. The parliament has the power to dispose the budget, but this could be difficult with the centralized currency. It would stop all the tasks of the union and break the whole idea of working together of the European countries. When crashes between the two bodies occur it woul d give an advantage to the anti European countries. This is as a result of weakening of the fabric (Peterson and Shackleton 2012, p. 117). Another power that is in possession of the parliament is the right to dismantle the commission. If two thirds of the members of parliament vote for this, it could happen. The results of this would be huge chaos, and they cannot allow it to happen. The parliaments member’s election is for a term of five

What is the Oxford English Dictionary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

What is the Oxford English Dictionary - Essay Example It was first published approximately 150 years back. Since then it has been continuously revised at regular intervals (About). In 1857 the members of Philological Society of London determined that the dictionaries of English Language were incomplete and required a lot of re-examination starting from the Anglo-Saxon times. In 1879 the Philological Society made a contract with James A. H. Murray and the Oxford University to initiate the process of developing English Dictionary. Murray and his colleagues examined the words of English Language from the last seven centuries (History of the OED). The working team thought that it will take around ten years in completing the project. However, the English words kept on evolving and the process took more years than actually anticipated. Murray and his team published the first version of Oxford English Dictionary in 1884 but it was clearly evident that much more work was left to be done. Later on other editors joined the team including W.A. Craigie, Henry Bradley, and C.T. Onions. The new team worked steadily and published the final volume in April 1928 with more than 400,000 words (History of the OED). There were several reasons for the publication of Oxford English Dictionary. Early modern period changed the English language since the words used were immensely increased during 1500 to 1650. Words were also taken from Greek and Latin languages which necessitated the development of profound English Dictionary. Moreover, the world was undergoing serious demographic changes such as the shifts from rural to urban areas (Simpson). This subsequently increased the publication of books and other relevant material. Eventually the grammar schools were established which pushed the authorities to revise the English Dictionary. Apart from this the monolingual dictionaries were preceding around the globe while on the other hand the Latin-English Dictionaries were also

Causes of Poverty in Canada | Essay

Causes of Poverty in Canada | Essay Poverty in a section of Canadian society remains a major concern, with the nation scoring one of the highest poverty rates among the highly industrialized and wealthiest nations (CBC, 2013). The government of Canada, in a bid to help reduce the poverty level, has been making efforts to set up wide range of social welfare programs, including universal public education systems, universal medical systems, minimum wage among others (Conference Board of Canada, 2013).It has, however, been argued that poverty depends on individuals and that the poor are only so because they wish. These steps imply that the government structural adjustment of socio-political structures may not save the prevailing situations. Against the background of the controversial source of poverty, this paper explores some of the causes of poverty in Canada, with a special attention of whether the poor can be so out of their wish. The paper argues that even though some personal attributes may account for the poor, pove rty is also a product of structural malfunctions, and however much individuals reform poverty will persist if corresponding structural adjustments are not made. Explaining the Poverty in Canada Poverty in a developed state like Canada can be explained from various theoretical standpoints. Some scholars view poverty as a product of personal failure so that the poor remain so because of their personal limitations and traits (Lusted, 2010). This school of thought stem from the notion of meritocracy, which assert that the rewards in the society are given based on merit. From this perspective, the rich are so because they poses unique personal attributes that the poor do not have, and the superior traits or characteristics that attract of societal reward with good earnings and wealth (Lusted, 2010). Going by meritocracy, the poor Canadians are those who have personal traits that limit them from utilizing the money making opportunities available. Such trait could include laziness, poor attitude or low educational attainment. Following this perspective the poor have simply failed to pull out of poverty, not because of any structural or societal failure, but essentially of the poor s personal failure. This notion is reflected in the resistance to socio-economic programs that Canadian government has sought to put in places such as progressive income tax system, minimum wage laws and child credits. The opponents of such programs argue that by letting the poor benefit the support, at the expense of those economically endowed, the government is rewarding personal failure. The notion of meritocracy and the view that poverty is an evitable personal failure should be treated with caution. Indeed, the Canadian society and the rest of the world are becoming highly competitive. Individuals need to have high educational attainment and adequate training to secure well-paying jobs. Those who venture into entrepreneurship equally have to be diligent and innovative to survive business competition and avoid being edged out of the competition. However, it proceeds from an assumption that personal efforts and capability are all needed for wealth creation. This is a wrong and misleading assumption. Entrepreneurs, for instance, need not only enterprising skills but also capital and at times land to start up and run their businesses. Accessing capital remains challenging too many Canadians, more so for those who have no security and good social network to help raise the same (Raphael, 2011). Similarly, those seeking to be employed could have high academic qualificatio ns but the employment opportunities that match their qualifications would be very scarce (Raphael, 2011). This leads to unemployment and underemployment, which increases the poverty level. There is also evidence that structural adjustments in Canada have slowed down and reduce the nation’s poverty rate. For instance, according to Conference Board of Canada (2013) reduced tax burden on the low income earning Canadians has helped limit poverty rate by up to 11 percent. Without this social relief, the Board estimates that Canadian poverty rate would now be standing at 23 percent rather than the 12 percent as it stood in 2013.This evidence disapproves the concept that poverty is associated with personal limitations because the adjustments were on structures rather than peoples traits. An alternative view is that poverty in Canada is mainly attributed to key economic and social structural failings. According to structural theorists, poverty in a society is a product of failures at the structural levels of the society (Rank, Yoon Hirschl, 2003). Structures in society refer to social, economic and political institutions, policies and programs. Ideally, these structures should be designed in accordance with the demands and circumstances of the society. That way, there will be structural fit between the structures and limitations they are designed to remedy or goals they are designed to achieve. When the systems fail to meet the goals, needs and demands they are meant to address, or when the structures turn out to be insufficient a structural failure occurs with adverse societal consequences (Rank et al., 2003). In the context of Canada, key social and economic structures include labor market, government policies, social safety nets and resource allocation among others. One of the failures that could explain Canadian poverty is the failure in the labor market to provide adequate job that would raise adequate pay and keep Canadian families out of the poverty (Raphael, 2011). Though Canada has relatively low unemployment level, the job market is relatively saturated so that a substantial population are absorbed in low paying part time jobs with fewer benefits (Rank et al., 2013). If the labor market would offer full time, well-paying jobs with benefits. Then the poverty level would drop. The minimum wage is equally fixed at a low rate that would hardly sustain families outside the poverty level. Few social safety net and devotion of fewer resources to helping the poor are yet further explanations of Canadian poverty. Evidence by Conference Board of Canada (2013) gives strong evidence that had Canadian government not set a progressive tax system with more relief to the poor, the poverty level would be far much higher than it is today. Without socially-driven tax relief, the Board estimates that Canadian poverty rate would now be standing at 23 percent rather than the 12 percent as it stood in 2013. Similarly, various social programs such as mandatory employment insurance programs and transfer programs from the poor to the old have lessen the poverty level evidence in reduction of income inequality by 27 percent away from what it would currently be. Conclusion To conclude, while personal failures could explain isolated cases of poverty in Canada, Canadian poverty is mainly due to structural failures. Personal traits are just but one of the several determinants of wealth creation. However hard working, enterprising and well-educated Canadians may be, they can hardly get outside the poverty cycle without adequate and proper social and economic structures. Some of the social and economic structural adjustments are already helping reduce poverty rates significantly, confirming the view that structural failures would escalate poverty rate. References CBC. (2013,February 1). Canada dwindling behind on poverty, variation, says report Canada ranked 7th in 17 developed countries. CBC. Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/story/2013/02/01/business-canada-society-report-card.html. Conference Board of Canada. (2013). Children Poverty. Ottawa, ON: Conference of Canada. Lusted, M. A. (2010).Poverty. Edina, Minn.: ABDO Pub Rank, M.R., Yoon, H., Hirschl, T.A. (2003). American Poverty a Structural Failing. Evidence and Arguments. Journal of Social and Socialology Welfare30(4): 3–29. Raphael, D. (2011).Poverty in Canada: Implications of Health Quality of Life, 2nd edition. Toronto: Canadian Scholars Press.

Othello Essay

The language of sin is not just Ð ° theologically freighted way of talking about morally bad acts; it points to Ð ° deeper flaw within human life as we experience it, Ð ° perversion of outlook and desire that we may come to recognise but cannot fully evade. Overview According to Ð ° view going back to Aristotle (and probably earlier); someone who acts out of Ð ° mistaken belief about Ð ° relevant matter of fact may not be morally culpable for what would otherwise be Ð ° bad action. For example, Ð ° doctor who administers an antibiotic without realising that his patient is allergic to it is not guilty of murder if the patient subsequently dies, assuming that the mistake in question is Ð ° good-faith error which the doctor could not have avoided (perhaps the patient neglected to give the correct information about allergies when asked to do so). In this kind of situation, ignorance of relevant facts would seem to render the act in question involuntary in Ð ° qualified respect that is to say, precisely considered as an act of murder. (Travitsky 184-96) And since we presuppose that someone is morally responsible only for her freely chosen actions, it follows that in these kinds of cases, the agent cannot be regarded as morally culpable for what is objectively Ð ° bad action. In the tragedy of Othello, many animal references are made by Iago to the people he disrespects. The purpose of Shakespeare depicting Iago as Ð ° character who perceives others as animals is to show his dominance and his representation of mankind, illustrating his superiority over others. The interpretation of Iago signifying mankind reveals another side of him, his bestial nature. (David et. All 1335-38) Discussion Aristotle apparently did not believe that the same line of analysis could be applied to someone who acts out of Ð ° mistaken moral view, and Aquinas and most other scholastic theologians would have agreed, albeit not always on Aristotelian grounds. 2 However, in recent years Ð ° number of moral theologians and some philosophers have argued that moral mistakes do obviate moral guilt that is, someone who acts out of Ð ° sincere but wrong belief that Ð ° given kind of action is morally permissible cannot be regarded as morally culpable for what she does, even if the act in question is in every other respect voluntary. Of course, if this extension of the Aristotelian argument is to be plausible, one would need to add that the mistake in question is not itself the result of prior wrong-doing, and that the agent has taken due care to form his conscience appropriately and to determine what he genuinely owes to himself, to other persons, and (perhaps) to non-human entities or to God. Given these qualifications, however, one might say, for example, that Ð ° doctor who kills her patient in the sincere but (let’s assume) mistaken belief that she is justified in thus ending his suffering is not subjectively guilty of murder. The agent freely commits, and is therefore morally responsible for, Ð ° kind of action that (by hypothesis) meets the objective criteria for murder; yet given that she acts out of Ð ° mistaken belief that the act in question is not morally wrong, she does not commit Ð ° voluntary act of murder, considered precisely as an act of wrongful killing. (Straznicky 104-34) This is at least Ð ° plausible view. It seems harsh to regard someone as morally guilty for an action carried out under the mistaken, yet sincere and conscientious belief that an act of the relevant kind is morally justified particularly when we reflect that none of us can be certain that our own moral beliefs are correct in every respect. What is more, this line of analysis seems to correspond to at least some widespread intuitions. I believe most people in industrialised societies would be prepared to take this line with respect to cases involving widely controversial and difficult issues, as presented, for example, by an act of euthanasia. However, in other kinds of cases, we may well balk at the conclusion that moral ignorance justifies Ð ° particular line of action. Imagine Ð ° doctor who kills her patient because he is an extremely unpleasant old man who is tormenting his family for no good purpose; what is more, he has left Ð ° large sum of money to Ð ° charity which desperately needs it. The doctor sincerely believes that the needs of this man’s relatives and the demands of the common good override her obligations not to kill, and she acts accordingly. (David et. All 1335-38) Analysis In response, it might be said that some moral norms are so obvious that no one could make Ð ° good faith mistake about them; thus, Ð ° mentally competent adult who genuinely does not know that murder is wrong must be guilty of (at least) culpable neglect. This argument fits well with what came to be the dominant scholastic view on ‘ignorance of the law’ with respect to the natural law that is to say, since the fundamental precepts of the natural law are in some sense innate, Ð ° competent adult cannot fail to grasp them unless she is guilty of some kind of prior wrong-doing or negligence. Some contemporary theologians extend this line of analysis as follows: Admittedly, some moral mistakes are ipso facto evidence of prior wrong-doing, negligence, or bad faith. Yet, at least with respect to the difficult and complex questions we face today, genuine, non-culpable moral mistakes are both possible and exculpating. (Travitsky 184-96) This line of analysis, in turn, lends credence to Ð ° widespread view according to which one’s moral status depends exclusively on the orientation of the agent’s will as expressed through her freely chosen actions (considered either singly, or as comprising an overall pattern of behaviour). Straznicky 104-34) On this view, Ð ° mistaken moral judgment, while regrettable, has no moral significance in itself. In the words of John Coons and Patrick Brennan, ‘It is, then, plainly plausible that while humans have Ð ° primary obligation to seek correct treatment of others (and self), their honest pursuit of that ideal effects whatever moral perfection is possible to the individual’. Certainly, it is true that Othello acts as he does out of Ð ° mistaken belief about Desdemona’s infidel ity. But I want to argue that this mistake alone would not account for his act, were it not for other mistaken beliefs he holds, at least one of which clearly concerns Ð ° moral principle. Before moving to that point, however, is it worth spending some time over Othello’s factual mistakes (I believe he makes more than one), seen in the context of what we are shown about his overall character and disposition. Even if we bracket the special difficulties raised by moral mistakes, the moral significance of mistaken beliefs is not as straightforward as we may assume or so Othello’s example would suggest. (Jane et. All 19-47) Othello’s story is Ð ° tragedy, and not just Ð ° very sad story, because it is the story of the destruction of Ð ° noble, deeply admirable man brought about through his own weaknesses, systematically exploited by Ð ° malicious enemy. In order for this story to have the force that it does, Shakespeare must first of all make it clear that Othello really is noble and deeply admirable. This point is sometimes obscured by the vulgar racist slurs directed against him by Iago and at least tacitly accepted by some of the other characters (see, for example, I. 1, 88–89). Yet isn’t this the kind of thing that we would expect Iago to say? Shakespeare takes pains to show that Othello himself does not fit the stereotypes of the lustful, rash and unthinking black man on which Iago trades. On the contrary when we first see him, in the encounter with Brabantio (Desdemona’s father), it is the latter that is rash and unthinking, not to say hysterical, whereas Othello is Ð ° model of self-restraint under extreme provocation (I. 2, beginning at line 58). He defends himself before the Venetian senate in terms of great dignity and candour, and his account of his love for Desdemona makes it clear that he truly does love her, just as her love for him is no girlish infatuation, but an intelligent response to his past sufferings and his noble character (I. , 129ff. ). His subsequent behaviour is that of Ð ° devoted husband who also bears Ð ° public trust, to which he properly gives priority with his wife’s full understanding and consent far from jumping into bed with his new bride, he sails to Cyprus and sees to preliminary arrangements for the defence and governance of the island, apparently before his marriage is ever consummated (I. 3, 260–79, and espec ially 299–300). Even Iago admits that left to him, Othello will most probably make Desdemona Ð ° good, loving husband (II. , 284–85). What is more, Othello is Ð ° seasoned general of many years’ experience, the best military mind available to the Venetians, someone whom they regard as worthy of unrestrained public trust this is no unsophisticated fool, but Ð ° mature, intelligent man at the height of Ð ° vital and demanding profession. And yet, this dignified and loving man is first reduced to Ð ° state of near-dementia, and then brought to Ð ° cool determination to kill his wife, through the machinations of Iago. In watching this process, it is difficult not to get caught up in the sheer fascination of Iago’s deliberate villainy how could anyone be so callous to every human feeling, so cheerfully calculating as he plans the destruction of those around him, so irredeemably evil? Confronted by such Ð ° spectacle, it is easy to overlook the fact that Othello’s transformation from Ð ° loving husband into Ð ° relentless avenger is, in its own way, almost as disturbing. (David et. All 1335-38) How can such Ð ° transformation take place? Of course, Othello is the victim of Ð ° deliberate deception, but that fact alone does not really answer the question, because it is by no means clear how Iago manages to convince Othello of Desdemona’s guilt after all, he has no actual evidence whatever, and not very much in the way of circumstantial evidence. What is more, even granting Othello’s conviction of Desdemona’s guilt, it would not be necessary for him to kill her he could banish her, as she pleads (V. 2, 79), or divorce her and send her back to her family. He might even forgive her and try to retrieve his marriage. (Straznicky 104-34) Thus, Iago’s malicious deception, while troubling in its own right, should not be allowed to obscure the puzzles presented by Othello’s own behaviour. Why is he vulnerable to Iago’s designs in the first place, and why does he react to Desdemona’s adultery (as he believes to be the case) in the way that he does? We must look for the answers to these questions in Othello himself. (David et. All 1335-38) One starting point immediately suggests itself. Why is it so easy for Iago to persuade Othello that his beloved Desdemona has committed adultery with his lieutenant Cassio? Shouldn’t Othello’s love for Desdemona which I believe we should take at face value have inclined him to resist, or even just to ignore, Iago’s insinuations? It might be said that Iago gets away with his plan so easily because Othello is so trusting, as Iago himself suggests as he notes, Othello has ‘Ð ° free and open nature’ and will believe what he is told (I. 3, 396–400). And indeed, once Iago (seemingly) begins to respond to his demands for proof, Othello never doubts him until confronted with unmistakable proof of his treachery. (Travitsky 184-96) Certainly, Othello places Ð ° remarkable degree of trust in Iago but it seems inaccurate to say that he is trusting without qualification. He does not trust Desdemona at all. Admittedly, he catches her in Ð ° lie over the handkerchief he gave her, but had he been so disposed, he could have seen this for what it is the self-protective lie of Ð ° flustered young woman (II. , 45–94). More tellingly, he does not trust Emilia when she insists, repeatedly and strongly, that Desdemona has never betrayed him, even though Emilia (Iago’s wife and Desdemona’s personal attendant) is in Ð ° better position than anyone else to know about her intimate activities (IV. 2, 1–24). It begins to look as if Othello is prepared to trust some, but not others in particular, he trusts men but he does not trust women. This suspicion is confirmed by his remarks about women, remarks which we know to reflect general Elizabethan attitudes that women are naturally lustful, cannot be relied upon to maintain chastity without continual supervision, and are sly and deceitful to boot (III. 3, 264–80). Various comments, together with the whole tenor of his behaviour towards Iago, suggest very different beliefs about at least some classes of men, namely frank, hearty types such as Iago, whom he regards as honest and worthy of trust (III. 3, 124, and especially 245).